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In the macro-vasculature, OS accelerates atherosclerosis by promoting LDL oxidation, macrophage foam cell formation, and plaque instability via matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activation (Kowluru and Mishra, 2017), while in diabetic nephropathy, podocyte injury results from NOX4-derived O 2 and mitochondrial ROS-mediated apoptosis (Jha et al., 2024)

HIV proteins such as Vpr and Tat have been shown to directly impair mitochondrial function, induce ROS production, and promote mtDNA damage ( It is crucial to recognize that chronic inflammation and immune dysfunction in PLWH are multifactorial and extend beyond mitochondrial dysregulation

The primary benefits of Acetyl-L-Carnitine supplementation include: Facilitating the transport of fatty acids into mitochondria for breakdown, aiding in fat burning and energy production

Incorporating both topical and oral vitamin C can yield synergistic results in managing melasma

Blue Buffalo Co., Ltd., data on file, 2016-2022